Abstract
Background: Quantifying the risk of colorectal cancer for individuals is likely to be useful for health service provision. Our aim was to develop and externally validate a prediction model to predict 5-year colorectal cancer risk.
Methods: We used proportional hazards regression to develop the model based on established personal and lifestyle colorectal cancer risk factors using data from 197,874 individuals from the 45 and Up Study, Australia. We subsequently validated the model using 24,233 participants from the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study (MCCS).
Results: A total of 1,103 and 224 cases of colorectal cancer were diagnosed in the development and validation sample, respectively. Our model, which includes age, sex, BMI, prevalent diabetes, ever having undergone colorectal cancer screening, smoking, and alcohol intake, exhibited a discriminatory accuracy of 0.73 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.72–0.75] and 0.70 (95% CI, 0.66–0.73) using the development and validation sample, respectively. Calibration was good for both study samples. Stratified models according to colorectal cancer screening history, that additionally included family history, showed discriminatory accuracies of 0.75 (0.73–0.76) and 0.70 (0.67–0.72) for unscreened and screened individuals of the development sample, respectively. In the validation sample, discrimination was 0.68 (0.64–0.73) and 0.72 (0.67–0.76), respectively.
Conclusion: Our model exhibited adequate predictive performance that was maintained in the external population.
Impact: The model may be useful to design more powerful cancer prevention trials. In the group of unscreened individuals, the model may be useful as a preselection tool for population-based screening programs. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev; 23(11); 2543–52. ©2014 AACR.
Introduction
With 1.2 million new cases in 2008, colorectal cancer ranks third of all cancers worldwide (1). It accounts for 8% of all cancer-related deaths, making it the fourth most common death from cancer (1).
More than 95% of people with colorectal cancer are estimated to benefit from curative surgery if diagnosed early (2), and screening programs have been implemented in many nations (3–5). Despite its proven effectiveness, colorectal cancer screening may have its downsides, e.g., due to investigation side effects, overdiagnosis, false-positives, and psychologic distress (6). Also, with healthcare resources increasingly in short supply, healthcare services should be allocated efficiently to maximize health benefit. Greater targeting of scarce resources toward individuals at elevated risk of colorectal cancer could potentially improve cost effectiveness and health inequalities.
More than 50% of colorectal cancer cases may be linked to lifestyle factors (7), including smoking (8), lack of physical activity (9, 10), body fatness (9), alcohol (9, 10), and intake of red and processed meat or foods low in dietary fiber (9, 10). Because single risk factors are likely to cluster and interact, a model estimating each individual's risk for colorectal cancer based on multiple factors may be a valuable tool. It may inform the individuals about their risk of developing colorectal cancer, assist in determining risk-appropriate screening regimens, and may be used in medical research for designing more powerful observational studies or clinical trials (11, 12).
Only a few prediction models have been developed for incident colorectal cancer (13), based on case–control data (14), expert opinion (15), solely on men (16), an Asian population where generalizability to non-Asian settings may be in question (17) or confined to colon cancer (18). Our aim was to develop and externally validate a risk score predicting absolute risk of colorectal cancer using data from two large Australian prospective studies, the 45 and Up Study and the Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study (MCCS).
Materials and Methods
The 45 and Up Study
The Sax Institute's 45 and Up Study is a large-scale Australian cohort study designed to investigate healthy aging (19). Eligible participants were randomly selected from the Australian universal health insurance records (Medicare). A total of 267,113 men and women (53.6% women) ages ≥45 from the general population in New South Wales (NSW) joined the study by completing a postal questionnaire (distributed from January 2006 to December 2008) and giving written consent. Ethical approval for the study was provided by the University of NSW Human Research Ethics Committee and the Population and Health Services Research Ethics Committee.
We excluded participants with prevalent cancer (other than nonmelanoma skin cancer, n = 55,777), missing date of study entry (n = 11), with a body mass index (BMI) outside the range of 15 to 50 kg/m2 (n = 2,113), and with invalid or most likely implausible values for physical activity and food groups under study as previously defined (n = 11,338; ref. 20). A total of 197,874 participants remained for analysis.
Information on predictors, including sociodemographics, medical history, body weight and height, smoking, alcohol, diet and physical activity, was derived from self-administered study questionnaires (21).
Information on cancer incidence was obtained through record linkage with the NSW Central Cancer Registry. For our analysis, the specific censoring date at which the cancer registry was considered complete was December 2008. Registry information was complemented with record data from the NSW Admitted Patient Data Collection (APDC) for the time period from January 2009 to December 2011. The APDC is a complete census of all hospital admissions and discharges in NSW and contains, among other details, the primary reason for admission. It has been shown for breast cancer that cancer diagnosis can be accurately identified using hospital data (22). The record linkage was conducted by the NSW Centre for Health Record Linkage (23).
We only considered first primary incident cases of colorectal cancer and participants were followed up from study entry to cancer diagnosis, death or follow-up termination (end December 2011), whichever came first. Incidence data were coded using the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O-3), with colorectal cancer comprising C18-C20 (excluding C18.1, cancers of the appendix). Proximal colon tumors included the cecum, ascending colon, hepatic flexure, and transverse colon (C18.0, 18.2–18.4). Distal colon tumors included the splenic flexure (C18.5), descending (C18.6), and sigmoid (C18.7) colon. Overlapping lesions of the colon (C18.8) and unspecified colon (C18.9) were grouped among all colon cancers only (C18.0, C18.2-C18.9). Cancer of the rectum included tumors occurring at the rectosigmoid junction (C19) and rectum (C20). Anal canal tumors were excluded.
The MCCS
The MCCS is a prospective cohort study including 41,514 residents (41% male) of Melbourne, Australia, recruited between 1990 and 1994 and ages between 27 and 75 at baseline (24). Approval for the study was obtained from the Cancer Council Victoria's Human Research Ethics Committee and participants gave written informed consent. A structured interview was used to obtain information on sociodemographic, dietary, and lifestyle factors. Height and weight were measured according to standardized procedures. Incident cases of colorectal cancer were identified from notifications to the Victorian Cancer Registry using the same definition as in the 45 and Up Study. Risk factor data from the second follow-up (2003–2007) were used for this study to cover a similar time period for the assessment of risk factors as the development sample. Because information on alcohol was not available for the second follow-up at the time of analysis, baseline data were used. After applying the same exclusion criteria as for the development sample and additionally excluding individuals with missing information on predictors, 24,233 participants remained for analysis.
Model development
On the basis of well-established associations with colorectal cancer risk (8–10, 25), the following predictors were selected: age, BMI, sex, prevalent diabetes, previous colorectal cancer screening, first-degree relative with colorectal cancer, aspirin use, smoking status (never, former, and current), alcohol intake, cereal consumption and wholegrain bread as markers of dietary fiber intake, intake of vegetables, fruits, red meat and processed meat, and vigorous physical activity.
Missing values occurred on some predictors ranging from <1% for smoking to 13.7% for processed meat. Given that both complete-case analysis and the missing-indicator method may result in biased estimates of the associations under study and may, thus, lead to poor predictions, we used multiple imputation to handle the missing data efficiently (26, 27). Briefly, multiple imputation assumes that data are missing at random (MAR), i.e., the reason for missingness can be explained by the observed data. Missing values are sampled and replaced with a set of plausible values randomly drawn from their predicted distribution based on the other observed variables and several plausible imputed datasets are created. The results obtained from each of them are appropriately combined, fully accounting for the uncertainty caused by missing data (Rubin's rules; ref. 27). All predictor variables, the outcome variable (person-time), and the censoring variable were included in the multiple imputation procedure (27). Although some variables did not have missing values, they might be predictive of missingness or affect the process causing missing data. Also, we further included additional variables that we considered to increase the plausibility of the MAR assumption to improve the imputation process (28), e.g., highest qualification obtained, a measure of remoteness/accessibility to services (ARIA), and an index of relative socioeconomic Advantage and Disadvantage (IRSAD), as well as frequency of chicken intake. We used the FCS (fully conditional specification) method in PROC MI in SAS, with logistic regression specified for binary and ordinal variables and regression method used for continuous variables (29, 30). Because the proportion of missing data was rather low, a total of five imputation cycles were considered reasonable to efficiently produce valid inferences. Missing data theorists indicated little or no practical benefit to using more than five to 10 imputations unless proportions of missing data are unusually high (31). A simulation study also showed that for a scenario of 10% missing data, the regression coefficients are essentially unbiased and the relative efficacy and power falloff are negligible using five compared with 100 imputations (32).
Associations of predictors with colorectal cancer were analyzed using proportional hazards regression separately by imputed dataset. On the basis of the combined estimates, weights were assigned for each predictor and the risk score was computed as a linear combination of the weighted predictors. The 5-year risk of colorectal cancer was calculated by inserting the individual risk score into the survivor function from the proportional hazards model
where SM = Survivor function estimate at 5 years and at means of all predictors, RSi = individual risk score estimated as the linear combination of weighted predictors, and RSM = risk score estimated at means of all predictors.
Departure from the proportional hazards assumption was evaluated for all predictors based on Schoenfeld residuals. No violations were detected.
Apart from the full model defined a priori, we fitted a reduced model consisting of those predictors that were significantly related to colorectal cancer in the full model. We additionally computed risk scores for each colorectal cancer subtype and according to colorectal cancer screening history. We also tested for possible interactions between various predictor variables. To assess an interaction in the analysis model following multiple imputation, interaction terms need to be included in the imputation model (33). Allowing for all possible interactions, however, would make the imputation model very large (33). Following the suggestion of Wood and colleagues (33), we, therefore, performed a first imputation without interactions and derived the risk prediction model as it is presented in the results. We then explored interactions using a liberal significance level of 0.15 to allow for downward bias due to their noninclusion in the imputation model. Specifically, we tested for plausible interactions of sex with BMI, smoking, physical activity, prevalent diabetes, red and processed meat intake, and also for interactions of smoking with alcohol intake and of BMI with physical activity. Because we did not detect any interactions, there was no need to subsequently update our imputation model.
Model validation
We applied the set of predictors to each of the five imputed datasets, averaged the resulting five predicted risks for each individual, and evaluated the performance of this average (34). External validation was based on the combined estimates obtained from the five imputed datasets.
Model performance was evaluated by means of discrimination and calibration. Discrimination was described by the c index for survival analysis (35, 36), which quantifies the model's ability to separate persons with longer event-free survival from those with shorter event-free survival within a given time horizon. We additionally computed the continuous net reclassification improvement [NRI(>0); refs. 37, 38] to compare the discriminatory ability of the full and reduced model. NRI(>0) values above 0.6 are considered strong, and values below 0.2, weak (39). We further calculated the integrated discrimination index (IDI), which is equivalent to the difference in discrimination slopes between the two models (37).
Calibration measures how well predicted probabilities agree with observed risks. We presented calibration at 5 years as a plot of observed proportions of events against average predicted probabilities across tenths of predicted risk.
We calculated sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value for a range of potential cutoff points to define high-risk individuals. To find the optimal cutoff point, we used the Youden index (J), defined as J = sensitivity + specificity − 1 (40, 41). It allows finding the threshold for which sensitivity and specificity are maximized.
In sensitivity analyses based on the reduced model, we excluded colorectal cancer cases diagnosed within the first 2 years of follow-up. We restricted the analysis to individuals with complete information on all predictors to compare results with those obtained using multiple imputation. Finally, we evaluated sex-specific models. In all sensitivity analyses, results remained virtually unchanged.
All analyses were performed using SAS version 9.3 (SAS Inc.) and R version 2.13.1 (42, 43). For all analyses, two-sided P values were considered.
Results
In the development sample, 1,103 cases of colorectal cancer were identified during an average (±SD) follow-up of 3.8 ± 0.9 years [747,764 person-years (PY)]. Of these, 750 were located in the colon (456 proximal, 240 distal, and 54 unspecified) and 353 in the rectum. In the validation sample (116,455 PY), 224 individuals were diagnosed with colorectal cancer [157 colon (95 proximal, 56 distal) and 67 rectum]. Distribution of predictors was broadly similar between the two samples (Table 1).
General characteristics of the 45 and Up Study (n = 197,874) and the MCCS (n = 24,233)
Although age, sex, BMI, prevalent diabetes, previous colorectal cancer screening, smoking, and alcohol were significantly related to colorectal cancer in our study, we did not observe a significant association with dietary factors, physical activity, family history, and aspirin use (Table 2).
Full and reduced model for predicting 5-year risk of colorectal cancer in the 45 and Up Study (n = 197,874)
The median value (range) of the risk score based on the reduced model for colorectal cancer was 4.20 (2.45–7.52) and 4.55 (2.82–7.05) in the development and validation sample, respectively. Relative risks (95% CI) of colorectal cancer by increasing score quintile for the development sample were 1.0 (reference), 1.8 (1.3–2.6), 3.2 (2.3–4.4), 6.2 (4.5–8.5), and 11.9 (8.8–16.1). Similar estimates were observed for the validation sample [1.0 (reference), 1.9 (0.9–4.0), 3.3 (1.7–6.5), 5.9 (3.1–11.2), and 9.0 (4.8–16.8), respectively].
Internal validation
The full model's c index (95% CI) was 0.73 (0.72–0.75), 0.75 (0.73–0.76), and 0.74 (0.71–0.77) for colorectal cancer, colon, and rectum, respectively (Table 2). Discriminatory power was higher for proximal than for distal colon cancer [0.78 (0.76–0.80) vs. 0.71 (0.68–0.75), respectively, data not shown]. The restriction to significant predictors barely affected the model's discriminatory ability. This was underlined by the NRI(>0) and indicates virtually no added value of the extended model. The difference in mean predicted risk of events and nonevents for total colorectal cancer increased from 0.006007 to 0.006209 (IDI = 0.000202).
Observed and predicted risk for colorectal cancer agreed well across tenths of predicted risk with no inferiority of the reduced model (Fig. 1A and B). The reduced model was well calibrated for both distal colon and rectal cancer, whereas there was an underestimation of risk for proximal colon cancer in the middle range of risk and an overestimation of risk in the highest tenth of risk (data not shown).
Calibration plot showing observed and predicted risks across tenths of predicted risk for (A) the full model in the development sample, (B) the reduced model in the development sample, and (C) the reduced model in the validation sample.
External validation
Our reduced model exhibited similar discriminatory accuracy for the validation compared with development sample (Table 2). The c indexes (95% CI) for total colorectal cancer, colon, rectum, proximal colon and distal colon were 0.70 (0.66–0.73), 0.72 (0.68–0.76), 0.64 (0.58–0.70), 0.74 (0.70–0.78), and 0.72 (0.65–0.77), respectively. Calibration of the model for total colorectal cancer was good (Fig. 1C). Likewise, calibration was adequate for colorectal cancer subtypes (data not shown).
Practical implications
For both populations, the Youden index suggested a risk score of ≥4.5 as the optimal cutoff point to define high-risk individuals based on the reduced model (Table 3). This threshold identified 80% of individuals who developed colorectal cancer during 5 years in the validation sample (sensitivity), whereas 48% of individuals not developing colorectal cancer had a risk score below this threshold (specificity). Of these individuals, the data presented here indicate that 1.0% to 1.4% will develop colorectal cancer over 5 years. It is noteworthy that for the calculation of the Youden index, sensitivity and specificity are considered equally important. This might not hold true in practice, and designation of a cutoff value should depend on the importance attached to false positives and false negatives.
Test characteristics according to various cutoff points of the risk score based on the reduced model in the development and validation sample
Because history of colorectal cancer screening was a very strong predictor of subsequent colorectal cancer, we additionally computed stratified models according to previous colorectal cancer screening (Table 4). Interestingly, the strength of associations with many predictors appeared stronger for individuals who have never undergone colorectal cancer screening in comparison with individuals who have ever been screened. This phenomenon became particularly obvious for the risk factor family history, which was not included in the model for the total study population due to its weak and nonsignificant association with colorectal cancer. In stratified analyses, family history was associated with a significantly higher colorectal cancer risk for unscreened individuals [RR (95% CI) = 1.32 (1.04–1.69)], whereas it was not related to colorectal cancer for screened individuals [RR (95% CI) = 0.90 (0.70–1.15)]. In line with this observation, discriminatory accuracy was higher for unscreened than among screened individuals in the development sample (c index of 0.75 (0.73–0.76) and 0.70 (0.67–0.72), respectively). In the validation sample, discrimination was 0.68 (0.64–0.73) and 0.72 (0.67–0.77) for the unscreened and screened group, respectively.
Full and reduced model for predicting 5-year risk of colorectal cancer for screened and for unscreened individuals in the 45 and Up Study (n = 197,874)
Discussion
In this large prospective Australian study, we developed a risk score that predicts short-term risk of colorectal cancer based on personal and lifestyle factors. The model exhibited good discriminatory accuracy and calibration using an external cohort.
Strengths of our study include its prospective design, the large sample size, the inclusion of easily assessable predictors, the use of multiple imputation techniques, and the model's external validation. Interpretation of the results warrants some caution, though, as follow-up time was fairly short in respect to the long-term nature of colorectal cancer. However, results were similar after exclusion of cases occurring during the first 2 years of follow-up. Furthermore, it is not expected that middle-aged men and women dramatically change their lifestyle over time so that we can assume most predictor data to reflect longer-term lifestyle behaviors.
A prediction model aims at developing the best possible predictor rather than explaining causal associations (11). Hence, not all previously identified etiologic factors may prove to be a good predictor in such a model. In the present study, some well-described risk factors, such as aspirin use, physical activity, and family history, were not selected to remain in the final model as their added usefulness in improving the risk prediction was shown to be rather low. Consistent with previous studies, we observed a higher risk of colorectal cancer with higher BMI (9, 10), prevalent diabetes (44), current and former smoking (8), and higher intake of alcohol (9, 10). Ever having undergone colorectal cancer screening was a strong (negative) predictor for subsequent colorectal cancer risk, conferring a 40% lower risk. Randomized trials on the effectiveness of flexible sigmoidoscopy reported a reduction in colorectal cancer incidence by 18% (45). Data from the Health Professionals Follow-up study showed a risk reduction of 42% for screening endoscopy (46), which is similar to our effect size. In the present study, we did not include information on the method of colorectal cancer screening. However, in the same study population, we recently demonstrated that accounting for screening method results in largely similar risk estimates for subsequent colorectal cancer over the follow-up period of up to 5 years (47). Given this observation and the insensitivity of the c index upon inclusion of additional predictors to a relatively strong model (48), we do not expect much improvement in model performance by including the information on screening method at this stage. As colonoscopy is assumed to be more effective in the long term, an updated prediction model covering a longer prediction time may additionally account for screening method.
Because individuals with a family history of colorectal cancer are more likely to undergo screening (71% of study participants with a family history had undergone previous colorectal cancer screening compared with 44% of participants without a family history), the inclusion of the information on previous colorectal cancer screening is likely to have attenuated the estimates for family history itself. This assumption was confirmed in analyses stratified according to screening history where family history was associated with a significantly higher colorectal cancer risk for unscreened individuals, whereas it was not related to colorectal cancer for screened individuals, suggesting that persons with a family history of colorectal cancer may counterbalance their increased risk by participating in screening. Likewise, previous screening may be a stronger negative predictor of colorectal cancer for individuals with a family history compared with individuals without a family history [RR = 0.42 (0.30–0.58) and RR = 0.62 (0.54–0.71), respectively].
The discriminatory ability of our reduced model was reasonably good and well maintained in the external validation sample that was developed entirely separately using independent methodologies. The model's performance also compares favorably with discriminatory performances of previously published colorectal cancer prediction models. In particular, Freedman and colleagues (14) presented a model predicting 10-year colorectal cancer risk based on colorectal cancer screening, polyp and family history, BMI, aspirin use, smoking and consumption of vegetables; external validation in the NIH-AARP study exhibited a discriminatory accuracy of 0.61 (49). The Physician's Health Study model that includes age, BMI, smoking, and alcohol yielded a c statistic of 0.70 over a 20-year time period (16). The discriminatory ability of a model predicting 10-year colorectal cancer risk using a Japanese cohort was 0.70 (0.68–0.72) for the development cohort and 0.64 (0.61–0.67) for a Japanese external validation cohort (17).
The stronger associations with several predictors and the higher predictive accuracy of the model found for individuals who have never undergone colorectal cancer screening compared with individuals with a history of colorectal cancer screening suggests that a previous colorectal cancer screening may counterbalance the effect and consequently the predictive ability of the other included risk factors.
In terms of practical application, our prediction model may help to design more powerful clinical trials by enriching the number of observed events. The additional model for the subgroup of unscreened individuals may be valuable in defining inclusion criteria for risk-based colorectal cancer screening programs (12). Invitation to colorectal cancer screening is commonly based on age criteria (3–5). Although age is a major risk factor of cancer, cancer risk is also affected by other determinants, and it has been suggested to replace the age criterion by a more general risk criterion (12). The use of prediction models as a preselection tool in population-based screening programs may improve the benefit–harms ratio of screening and assist in focusing scarce resources.
Before any implementation, the effect of using the model in the envisaged field of application, including a careful evaluation of health outcomes and cost effectiveness, needs to be quantified (50). In cancer risk prediction, only the Gail model for breast cancer has currently reached the phase of impact analysis (12). For the Gail model, discriminatory accuracies between 0.58 and 0.67 have been reported (51–54).
In conclusion, we have developed a risk score that predicts short-term risk of colorectal cancer and have demonstrated that it performs well in an independent population. The model may be useful in trial-based research. As a re-estimated version for individuals who have never undergone screening, it may be used as a preselection tool for population-based screening programs.
Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest
No potential conflicts of interest were disclosed.
Authors' Contributions
Conception and design: A. Steffen, G.G. Giles
Development of methodology: A. Steffen, R.J. MacInnis
Acquisition of data (provided animals, acquired and managed patients, provided facilities, etc.): G.G. Giles, E. Banks, D. Roder
Analysis and interpretation of data (e.g., statistical analysis, biostatistics, computational analysis): A. Steffen, R.J. MacInnis, G. Joshy, D. Roder
Writing, review, and/or revision of the manuscript: A. Steffen, R.J. MacInnis, G. Joshy, G.G. Giles, E. Banks, D. Roder
Administrative, technical, or material support (i.e., reporting or organizing data, constructing databases): G.G. Giles
Study supervision: D. Roder
Grant Support
This research was completed using data collected through the 45 and Up Study (www.saxinstitute.org.au). The 45 and Up Study is managed by the Sax Institute in collaboration with major partner Cancer Council NSW; and partners: the National Heart Foundation of Australia (NSW Division); NSW Ministry of Health; beyondblue; Ageing, Disability, and Home Care, Department of Family and Community Services; the Australian Red Cross Blood Service; and UnitingCare Ageing.
This work was supported by infrastructure from the Cancer Council Victoria and grants from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia 209057 and 251533.
A. Steffen was supported by a scholarship from the German Research Foundation (DFG). E. Banks is supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia.
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Acknowledgments
The Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study was made possible by the contribution of many people, including the original investigators and the diligent team who recruited the participants, and who continue working on follow-up. The authors thank the many thousands of Melbourne residents who continue to participate in the 45 and Up Study. The authors also acknowledge the support of the Centre for Health Record Linkage.
- Received February 24, 2014.
- Revision received July 11, 2014.
- Accepted July 29, 2014.
- ©2014 American Association for Cancer Research.
References
Volume 23, Issue 11
