This Article Full Text Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Services Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Cho, E. Articles by Willett, W. C. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Cho, E. Articles by Willett, W. C.

Premenopausal Intakes of Vitamins A, C, and E, Folate, and Carotenoids, and Risk of Breast Cancer¹

Channing Laboratory [E. C., D. J. H., W. Y. C., G. A. C., W. C. W.] and Division of Preventive Medicine [S. M. Z.], Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women’s Hospital; Departments of Biostatistics [D. S.], Nutrition [D. J. H., W. C. W.], and Epidemiology [D. S., D. J. H., S. M. Z., G. A. C., W. C. W.], Harvard School of Public Health; Department of Adult Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute [W. Y. C.]; and Harvard Center for Cancer Prevention [D. J. H., G. A. C.], Boston, Massachusetts 02115

Intakes of vitamins A, C, and E, folate, and carotenoids have been hypothesized to reduce the risk of breast cancer. However, previous epidemiological studies on these nutrients and breast cancer risk have been inconclusive, and have included primarily postmenopausal women.

We examined the intake of these nutrients in relation to breast cancer risk among 90,655 premenopausal women ages 26–46 years in 1991 in the Nurses’ Health Study II. Nutrient intake was assessed with a validated food-frequency questionnaire at baseline in 1991 and in 1995.

During 8 years of follow-up from 1991 to 1999, we documented 714 incident cases of invasive breast cancer. Overall, none of the vitamins and carotenoids was strongly related to a reduced risk of breast cancer. However, intake of vitamin A, including preformed vitamin A and carotenoids, was associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer among smokers; participants in the highest quintile of total vitamin A intake had a multivariate relative risk of 0.28 (95% confidence interval 0.12–0.62; P, test for trend <0.001; P, test for interaction <0.001) compared with those in the lowest quintile of intake.

We found no evidence that higher intakes of vitamins C and E, and folate in early adult life reduce risk of breast cancer. However, intake of vitamin A may be related to a reduced risk of breast cancer among smokers.

This article has been cited by other articles:

				Y. Cui, J. M Shikany, S. Liu, Y. Shagufta, and T. E Rohan Selected antioxidants and risk of hormone receptor-defined invasive breast cancers among postmenopausal women in the Women's Health Initiative Observational Study Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2008; 87(4): 1009 - 1018. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. Lin, I-M. Lee, N. R Cook, J. Selhub, J. E Manson, J. E Buring, and S. M Zhang Plasma folate, vitamin B-6, vitamin B-12, and risk of breast cancer in women Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2008; 87(3): 734 - 743. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. Cho, M. Holmes, S. E. Hankinson, and W. C. Willett Nutrients Involved in One-Carbon Metabolism and Risk of Breast Cancer among Premenopausal Women Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., December 1, 2007; 16(12): 2787 - 2790. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. M. McDaniel, C. O'Neill, R. P. Metz, E. Tarbutton, M. Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis, J. Heimendinger, P. Wolfe, H. Thompson, and P. Schedin Whole-Food Sources of Vitamin A More Effectively Inhibit Female Rat Sexual Maturation, Mammary Gland Development, and Mammary Carcinogenesis than Retinyl Palmitate J. Nutr., June 1, 2007; 137(6): 1415 - 1422. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. C. Larsson, E. Giovannucci, and A. Wolk Folate and Risk of Breast Cancer: A Meta-analysis J Natl Cancer Inst, January 3, 2007; 99(1): 64 - 76. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. J. Lewis, R. M. Harbord, R. Harris, and G. D. Smith Meta-analyses of Observational and Genetic Association Studies of Folate Intakes or Levels and Breast Cancer Risk. J Natl Cancer Inst, November 15, 2006; 98(22): 1607 - 1622. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. E. Gabriel, Z. Liu, J. W. Crott, S.-W. Choi, B. C. Song, J. B. Mason, and E. J. Johnson A Comparison of Carotenoids, Retinoids, and Tocopherols in the Serum and Buccal Mucosa of Chronic Cigarette Smokers versus Nonsmokers. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., May 1, 2006; 15(5): 993 - 999. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Z Stolzenberg-Solomon, S.-C. Chang, M. F Leitzmann, K. A Johnson, C. Johnson, S. S Buys, R. N Hoover, and R. G Ziegler Folate intake, alcohol use, and postmenopausal breast cancer risk in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2006; 83(4): 895 - 904. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. Lajous, E. Lazcano-Ponce, M. Hernandez-Avila, W. Willett, and I. Romieu Folate, vitamin b6, and vitamin B12 intake and the risk of breast cancer among mexican women. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., March 1, 2006; 15(3): 443 - 448. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				T. T. Fung, F. B. Hu, M. L. McCullough, P. K. Newby, W. C. Willett, and M. D. Holmes Diet Quality Is Associated with the Risk of Estrogen Receptor-Negative Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women J. Nutr., February 1, 2006; 136(2): 466 - 472. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. Kotsopoulos, A. Medline, R. Renlund, K.-J. Sohn, R. Martin, S. W. Hwang, S. Lu, M. C. Archer, and Y.-I. Kim Effects of dietary folate on the development and progression of mammary tumors in rats Carcinogenesis, September 1, 2005; 26(9): 1603 - 1612. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. D. Sesso, J. E. Buring, S. M. Zhang, E. P. Norkus, and J. M. Gaziano Dietary and Plasma Lycopene and the Risk of Breast Cancer Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., May 1, 2005; 14(5): 1074 - 1081. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K.-H. Tung, L. R. Wilkens, A. H. Wu, K. McDuffie, J. H. Hankin, A. M.Y. Nomura, L. N. Kolonel, and M. T. Goodman Association of Dietary Vitamin A, Carotenoids, and Other Antioxidants with the Risk of Ovarian Cancer Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., March 1, 2005; 14(3): 669 - 676. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L Hilakivi-Clarke, C Wang, M Kalil, R Riggins, and R G Pestell Nutritional modulation of the cell cycle and breast cancer Endocr. Relat. Cancer, December 1, 2004; 11(4): 603 - 622. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. D. Ribaya-Mercado and J. B. Blumberg Lutein and Zeaxanthin and Their Potential Roles in Disease Prevention J. Am. Coll. Nutr., December 1, 2004; 23(suppl_6): 567S - 587S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P. M. Webb, C. Byrne, S. J. Schnitt, J. L. Connolly, T. W. Jacobs, H. J. Baer, W. C. Willett, and G. A. Colditz A Prospective Study of Diet and Benign Breast Disease Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., July 1, 2004; 13(7): 1106 - 1113. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Nkondjock and P. Ghadirian Intake of specific carotenoids and essential fatty acids and breast cancer risk in Montreal, Canada Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2004; 79(5): 857 - 864. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				W. K. Al-Delaimy, E. Cho, W. Y. Chen, G. Colditz, and W. C. Willet A Prospective Study of Smoking and Risk of Breast Cancer in Young Adult Women Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., March 1, 2004; 13(3): 398 - 404. [Abstract] [Full Text]